The Canadian government recognises that Canada is a small country

in a global economy and it pursues a general policy to ensure that

Canada is ‘connected’. To that end, the government recognises that

broadband internet access is essential infrastructure in the country

and tax dollars are being spent to ensure that the urban/rural divide

in access is bridged. Although controversial, Canada is also attempting

to revise the Copyright Act in part to address internet related

concerns such as downloading of copyright material.

Which regulatory bodies are responsible for the regulation of

e‑commerce and internet access tariffs and charges?

Regulation is generally light in Canada, with no centralised oversight.

The Electronic Commerce Branch of Industry Canada takes primary

responsibility for policy implementation in the areas of privacy, security,

authentication and various online threats such as identity theft.

The branch also works with Statistics Canada to monitor usage of

information and communications technologies. There are no tariffs

and charges in Canada imposed by any level of government.

The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission

(the CRTC), which has regulatory responsibility for the Telecommunications

Act and the Broadcasting Act, has pronounced on

more than one occasion that it will not regulate the internet. However,

the trend towards viewing content that would otherwise be subject to

CRTC oversight under the Broadcasting Act may be revisited in the

future. The CRTC also periodically reviews such things as internet

service providers’ traffic management policies.

What tests or rules are applied by the courts to determine the

jurisdiction for internet‑related transactions (or disputes) in cases

where the defendant is resident or provides goods or services from

outside the jurisdiction?

Jurisdictional issues can be a challenge. Case law has generally supported

exclusive jurisdiction clauses unless there is a specific reason

to overrule them. The burden of establishing a specific reason rests

with the plaintiff and the threshold to be surpassed is beyond the

mere ‘balance of convenience’.

Otherwise, traditional common law principles have been used

by the courts to determine jurisdictional issues, which in an online

environment have proved more challenging to apply. For example,

factors such as ‘substantial connection’ test will look to the location

of the vendor, the intermediaries and the end-user.

Legislation, such as consumer protection legislation may also be

applied to determine whether certain aspects of online commerce are

in compliance. For example, depending upon the wording of the provincial

legislation, the courts may be willing to apply such laws both

where the consumer is located in the province, even if the vendor is not

or where the vendor is located in the province and the end-user is not.

Contracting on the internet

5 Is it possible to form and conclude contracts electronically? If so, how

are contracts formed on the internet? Explain whether ‘click wrap’

contracts are enforceable, and if so, what requirements need to be met.

Electronic contracts are enforceable in Canada. As outlined below,

almost all jurisdictions in Canada have passed specific legislation

conferring upon electronic transactions the same legal status as

paper-based contracts. All of the common law requirements for the

formation of a contract, including offer, acceptance and consideration

apply.

Click-wrap agreements have generally been found to be enforceable

in Canada. Notice plays a part in the determination of enforceability,

as does ‘accessibility’ of the terms of contract. The Supreme Court

of Canada upheld an arbitration clause in an online contract where the

contractual terms and conditions were only reached by hyperlink. In

its finding, the court stated that as long as the terms were ‘reasonably

accessible’ they were enforceable, and determined that a document

accessed only by hyperlink was sufficient to meet that test.

6 Are there any particular laws that govern contracting on the internet?

Do these distinguish between business‑to‑consumer and business‑tobusiness

contracts?

Each of the provinces and territories in Canada, with the exception

of the Northwest Territories, has adopted its own specific legislation

dealing with electronic commerce. Each of these acts deal primarily

with confirming the legal status of electronic-based records

or signatures (other than certain specific types of contracts, such as

wills) as well as records retention and confirming the formation and

operation of contracts by means of electronic record or activity in

electronic form (eg, clicking on some form of icon indicating acceptance

of an offer).

In addition, most provinces and territories also have their own

consumer protection laws and many have passed regulations in

respect of internet agreements or contracting. Such regulations deal

with required disclosure by a vendor with respect to itself and the

goods and contract in question, as well as providing for rules surrounding

the ability of a consumer to cancel an internet contract.

7 How does the law recognise or define digital or e‑signatures?

At both the federal and provincial level, legislation is in place to

specifically recognise electronic transactions, including the requirement

of execution. Generally speaking, Canadian law is enabling

and ‘technology-neutral’. Rather than requiring evidence of the reliability

of individual signatures or electronic signature certification,

the legislation presumes reliability when the system that produces or

stores the signature is reliable.

Under PIPEDA, the federal legislation, an electronic signature is

defined as a ‘signature that consists of one or more letters, characters,

numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to

or associated with an electronic document. PIPEDA further defined

‘secure electronic signature’ as an electronic signature that results

from the application of a technology or process that meets certain

tests prescribed by regulation, which relate to reliability attributes of

the technology to identify the individual. PIPEDA stipulates that if

there is a requirement under federal law for a signature, it is satisfied

by an electronic signature.

At the provincial level, most provinces and territories have

passed enabling legislation that confirms the efficacy of electronic

contracts, including the fulfilment of execution of that contract by

way of digital signature. In British Columbia, the Electronic Transactions

Act defines ‘electronic signature’ as ‘information in electronic

form that a person has created or adopted in order to sign a record

and that is in, attached to or associated with the record.’ There are

certain records that will not recognise such electronic signatures, such

as wills, powers of attorney or documents that create or transfer an

interest in land.

Record or data retention in Canada is prescribed by a number of

different statutes. PIPEDA also provides specifically for retention of

electronic contracts. If there is a requirement under a provision of

a federal law to retain a document, that requirement is satisfied by

the retention of an electronic document if the document is retained

for the period required by such federal law in the format in which

it was made, sent or received or in a format that does not change

the information contained in the document, and that the record is

capable of being read by anyone entitled to access, and finally if the

electronic document was sent or received, then information identifying

the origin of the document and destination of the document must

also be retained. Similar requirements are contained in provincial legislation.

For example, the British Columbia Electronic Transactions

Act contains provisions that require the retained record to be in the

format it was created in, accessible and readable and that identifies

the origin and destination of the record.

Examples of federal laws requiring document retention: the

Income Tax Act, the Customs Act and the Canada Business Corporations

Act.

Security

9 What measures must be taken by companies or ISPs to guarantee the

security of internet transactions?

There is no particular specified technology that must be in place for

ISPs to guarantee the security of internet transactions, but there are

legal obligations to maintain security through compliance with provincial

electronic transactions legislation and applicable consumer

protection legislation must be adhered to.

If the Technical Assistance for Law Enforcement in the 21st Century

Act, which has been introduced by the government of the day

is passed into law, ISPs will be required to install ‘intercept-capable’

equipment on their networks and provide police with ‘timely access’ to

subscribers’ personal information, including names, street addresses,

and IP addresses.

10 As regards encrypted communications, can any authorities require

private keys to be made available? Are certification authorities

permitted? Are they regulated and are there any laws as to their

liability?

At present, there is no governmental oversight over encryption,

certification or authorisation operations. The federal government’s

stated position with respect to cryptography is to ‘support the growth

of electronic commerce; allow Canadian producers to export their

products globally within the framework of international arrangements;

and [ensure measures are present] to maintain the capability

of law enforcement agencies to ensure public safety.’ The government

does have various search and seizure rights under the Criminal

Code, the Competition Act and other legislation, subject to the

general requirements for the application of warrants, which could

include the requirement for disclosure of encryption keys. The federal

government is currently considering new legislation to amend the

Competition Act and the Criminal Code that would facilitate law

enforcement (including the Canadian Security Intelligence Service)

interceptions of internet transmissions with a warrant for live data

or a production order for historical data and which would require

ISPs to retain data related to particular investigations.

The federal government through Industry Canada has also published

the Principles for Electronic Authentication, a set of guidelines

developed by various public and private entities. These principles are

not law. The principles focus on the participants in the authentication

process in particular in connection with risk management, privacy

and disclosure management.

What procedures are in place to regulate the licensing of domain

names? Is it possible to register a country‑specific domain name

without being a resident in the country?

Canada has its own internet country code top level domain name,

which is operated by the Canadian Internet Registration Authority

(CIRA), a not-for-profit Canadian corporation. CIRA develops and

implements domain name policy, facilitates dispute resolution and

licenses domain name registrars. CIRA also represents Canada as a

member of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

(ICANN).

To register for a .ca domain name, the registrant must have a

Canadian presence. To fulfil this requirement, the registrant must fit

within one of 15 categories as follows:

• Canadian citizen;

• permanent resident of Canada;

• legal representative of Canadian citizens or permanent residents

(eg, an executor);

• corporation incorporated under Canadian federal, provincial or

territorial law;

• trust established in Canada;

• partnership registered in Canada;

• Canadian unincorporated association;

• Canadian trade union;

• Canadian political party;

• Canadian educational institution;

• Canadian library, archive or museum;

• Canadian hospital;

• her majesty the queen and her successors;

• Indian band recognised by the Indian Act (Canada);

• aboriginal peoples indigenous to Canada; or

• government or government entities in Canada (represented

by a federal or provincial ministry, for example or a Crown

corporation).

However, notwithstanding the nexus required above, if a registrant

does not fit into any such category, a registrant may still qualify for

registration if the registrant is the owner of a trademark or an official

mark (as defined) that is the subject of a registration under the

Trade Marks Act (Canada) provided that permission is limited to an

application to register a .ca domain name consisting of or including

the exact word component of that registered trademark.

12 Do domain names confer any additional rights (for instance in relation

to trademarks or passing off) beyond the rights that naturally vest in

the domain name?

Beyond the right to use the .ca domain name, the granting of the

domain name does not confer any additional rights in connection

with a trademark or otherwise in terms of common law marks. Under

the Canadian Dispute Resolution Policy administered by CIRA a registrant

must submit to a proceeding if a complainant submits that the

registrant’s dot-ca domain name is confusingly similar to a registered

Canadian trademark in which:

• the complainant had rights prior to the date of registration of the

domain name and continues to have such rights;

• the registrant has no legitimate interest in the domain name;

and

• the registrant has registered the domain name in bad faith.

The terms ‘marks’, ‘rights’, ‘confusingly similar’ and ‘legitimate interests’

are all prescribed by the policy.

Conversely, the fact that a registrant has the domain name will

be a factor in an infringement case, but typically as supporting evidence

of the ‘use’ of the registrant’s trademarks, whether registered

or common law.

Will ownership of a trademark assist in challenging a ‘pirate’

registration of a similar domain name?

Again, registration in Canada of a trademark will assist in challenging

inappropriate registrations of a domain name. CIRA’s CDRP

defines three instances that constitute ‘bad faith’ registration by a

third party: where the domain name has been registered primarily

for the purpose of:

[S]elling, renting, licensing or otherwise transferring the Registration

to the Complainant, or the Complainant’s licensor or licensee of the

Registrant registered the domain name, or acquired the Registration,

primarily for the purpose of valuable consideration in excess of the

Registrant’s actual costs in registering the domain name, or acquiring

the Registration; the Registrant registered the domain name or

acquired the Registration in order to prevent the Complainant, or the

Complainant’s licensor or licensee of the Mark from registering the

Mark as a domain name, provided that the Registrant, alone or in

concert with one or more additional persons has engaged in a pattern

of registering domain names in order to prevent persons who have

Rights in Marks from registering the Marks as domain names; or the

Registrant registered the domain name or acquired the Registration

primarily for the purpose of disrupting the business of the Complainant,

or the Complainant’s licensor or licensee of the Mark, who is a

competitor of the Registrant.

CDRP Policy

To use this dispute resolution mechanism to force the transfer of

the ‘bad faith’ registration, the complainant must have a Canadian

registered trademark.

Advertising

14 What rules govern advertising on the internet?

Advertising generally is governed by both federal and provincial laws.

Federally, advertising laws are contained within the Competition Act,

RSC 1985, c.C-34; the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act, RSC

1985, c.C-38; the Textile Labelling Act, RSC 1985, c.T-10; the Precious

Metals Marking Act, RSC 1985, c.P-19; and the Food and Drugs

Act, RSC 1985, c.F-27, all of which fall under the responsibility of the

federally appointed agency, the Competition Bureau. The Competition

Act is the general over-arching legislation that applies to all advertising,

regardless of the platform or method of delivery and whether or

not advertising is made to consumers or business customers.

Contravention of the advertising related provisions, based principally

on misrepresentations in advertising, can be prosecuted by the

Competition Bureau as an offence, or can be dealt with under the

civil sections of the Competition Act, including by the application of

administrative monetary penalties.

Although not law, Canadian Code of Advertising Standards is

administered by a national not-for-profit advertising self-regulatory

body called Advertising Standards Canada. The ASC’s members

include consumer packaged goods companies, advertising agencies

and advisers.

Provincially, legislation revolves around consumer protection

such as the Business Practices and Consumer Protection Act, SBC

2004, C-2 which addresses all communications or conduct by a

supplier that has the capability, tendency or effect of deceiving or

misleading a consumer. Where such consumer protection legislation

applies specifically to internet-created contracts, such as is the case for

the Ontario legislation, the statute requires the disclosure of certain

information, an express ability to accept or decline the agreement in

favour of the consumer and the requirement for delivery of a written

copy of the agreement within a stipulated time frame.

15 Are there any products or services that may not be advertised or types

of content that are not permitted on the internet?

In addition to the general compliance requirements under the Competition

Act and other more specific legislation cited above, any

advertising of illegal substances, or anything that contains other

illegal materials such as child pornography or hate literature or anything

that leads to a determination that such advertising contravenes

human rights legislation will be subject to the sanctions in applicable

law, including under the Criminal Code.

Financial services

16 Is the advertising or selling of financial services products to

consumers or to businesses via the internet regulated, and if so by

whom and how?

Financial services are governed federally for institutions that are governed

by federal legislation such as the Bank Act, and provincially

for institutions governed by provincial legislation such as, in British

Columbia, the Credit Union Incorporation Act. Other financial

products may be governed by applicable securities laws in Canada.

Federally, oversight of financial institutions broadly described as

‘deposit-taking institutions’, ‘insurance companies’ and pension

plans is by the Office of Superintendant of Financial Institutions

(OSFI). The OSFI’s mandate is to supervise such institutions and to

ensure that sound financial practices are in place and exercise their

powers to intervene to protect the rights and interests of depositors,

policyholders and pension plan members.

As well, certain provincial legislation addresses consumer credit

issues including disclosure of terms of credit arrangements and rights

and obligations of borrowers and guarantors.

Defamation

17 Are ISPs liable for content displayed on their sites?

Canada relies upon common law principles to determine liability.

There are no statutory provisions in Canada either imposing liability

on ISPs or exempting ISPs from liability for content on the internet.

Generally speaking the courts have found that it is the person posting

the content, not the ISP, that is responsible and liable for that content.

In particular, the Supreme Court of Canada in a case brought by

the Society of Composers, Authors and Music Publishers of Canada

(the case is known as the Tariff 22 case), found that ISPs simply

provide the means for the telecommunication of published materials,

and, accordingly are shielded from liability under section 2.4(1)(b)

of the Copyright Act, which provides that ‘a person whose only act

in respect of the communication of a work or other subject-matter

to the public consists of providing the means of telecommunication

necessary for another person to so communicate the work or other

subject-matter does not communicate that work or other subjectmatter

to the public.’

18 Can an ISP shut down a web page containing defamatory material

without court authorisation?

While ISPs in Canada have generally successfully argued ‘innocent

dissemination’ of content, and therefore that they are not liable for

having defamatory material posted, there is a ‘chill’ effect to not

having any specific statutory provisions that exempt the ISP from

liability, and therefore, the threat of litigation will often result in

the ISP removing content that is alleged to be defamatory, and the

ISP can generally do so under its contractual terms of service with

customers. In addition, there is no certainty that an ISP will not be

found liable on the grounds either that the ISP did not meet the test

of innocent disseminator or because it was effectively negligent in

failing to know about the defamation. To preserve their defence,

an ISP may remove content on notice that it is defamatory lest they

become liable for being made aware of such content and not taking

prudent steps to eliminate the continued dissemination of that

content to third parties.

Can a website owner link to third‑party websites without permission?

There is no requirement for permission to link to another’s website.

The website link itself is simply to an address.

20 Can a website owner use third‑party content on its website without

permission from the third‑party content provider?

A website owner will be subject to applicable Copyright Act requirements

and will not be able to simply use content that has been

developed and is owned by others on its site. All literary work that

qualifies as such (that is is original, for example) including work that

is written for display via the internet, is covered by the protections

of the Copyright Act.

21 Can a website owner exploit the software used for a website by

licensing the software to third parties?

If the website owner owns, or otherwise licenses and has the right to

sub-license the software, then it may license or otherwise exploit that

software through agreements governed generally by contract.

22 Are any liabilities incurred by links to third‑party websites?

If a link to a website results in the further publication of a copyrighted

work, the party linking may be found to be liable under the

Copyright Act. The mere fact of linking does not provide exposure to

liability, however, most parties are concerned about reputational risk

associated with linking to content that is not monitored for inappropriate

content. Website owners in Canada will often have terms and

conditions posted to their sites with respect to their policies regarding

linking to their site.

Data protection and privacy

23 What legislation defines ‘personal data’ within the jurisdiction?

The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act

(PIPEDA) defined ‘personal information’ as information about an

identifiable individual, but does not include the name, title or business

address or telephone number of an employee of an organisation.

The Privacy Act (Canada), which is legislation for the purpose

of extending the present laws of Canada to protect the privacy of

individuals with respect to personal information about themselves

held by a government institution, defines ‘personal information’ as

‘information about an identifiable individual that is recorded in any

form’, and includes information relating to the race, national or ethnic

origin, colour, religion, age or marital status of the individual

and information relating to the education or the medical, criminal

or employment history of the individual or information relating to

financial transactions in which the individual has been involved.

24 Does a website owner have to register with any controlling body to

process personal data? May a website provider sell personal data

about website users to third parties?

The processing of personal data is subject to applicable privacy laws,

either federally under PIPEDA or under provincial legislation such

as the Personal Information Privacy Act, British Columbia. There is

no registration process, nor any controlling body. There are national

and, for provinces with privacy legislation, provincial, privacy commissioners,

but their role is to advocate for privacy issues. For example,

the privacy commissioner of Canada is an officer of parliament

and reports to the house and the senate. Her mandate is to investigate

complaints, conduct audits, pursue court actions under federal laws,

report on personal information handling practices and support and

promote public awareness and understanding of privacy issues.

advertising of illegal substances, or anything that contains other

illegal materials such as child pornography or hate literature or anything

that leads to a determination that such advertising contravenes

human rights legislation will be subject to the sanctions in applicable

law, including under the Criminal Code.